Herodotus

The most hateful human misfortune is for a wise man to have no influence1.

Herodotus was born in Halicarnassus a Greek city in southwest Asia Minor and lived in the 5th Century B.C. Herodotus was a Greek Historian from Ionia. He is most notably known for his writing of The Histories.

The first six books deals with the growth of the Persian Empire under the rulers of Croesus and later Cyrus the Great .The second book is largely concerned with Egypt and the annexing of it by Cyrus's successor Cambyses. The next four books consist of the expansion of the Persian Empire under Darius, the Ionian revolt and the burning of Sardis. The sixth book details the first Persian attack of Greece and the defeat of the Persians at the battle of Marathon in 490 B.C. The last three books describe Xerxes invasion of Greece and their eventual defeat at Salamis and Plataea in 479 B.C.

There is not a lot of information about Herodotus and most of our information about him comes from his actual writing itself. It has been debated vigorously by historians that he was born between 500 B.C. and 470 B.C. The reason for this is that in his writing of The Histories he does not actually mention having witnessed the Persian War of 480-479 B.C. The date of his death is also a mystery and has been argued by historians over the years. However, as Thucydides mentions in his book The Peloponnesian Wars stating the execution of two Spartan officers in Athens as does Herodotus in Book 7 of The Histories it is reasonable to assume that he was alive then. It is believed that Herodotus died in the period of 429-413 B.C. in the plague of Athens which claimed the lives of thousands of Athenians. As Thucydides tells of Deccelea being plundered by Spartans in 413 B.C. something that Herodotus does not mention. Therefore it is fair to assume that he died between 429-413 B.C.

It is obvious from his writings that he was a seasoned traveler and regularly visited many places and cities. This is evident from his writing where he is describes visiting places such as the Nile, Sicily and even interviewing the priests at Babylon. It would be fair to say that Herodotus was the first person of his time to actively travel around the world to report his accounts. It is because of this that he has become known as the Father of History.

Thucydides was a Greek historian who was born in Alimos between the years 460 and 455 B.C and died between 411 and 400 B.C. He is known for his book The History of the Peloponnesian War which details the war between Sparta and Athens in the 5th Century. As with many authors of that time much of the information we know about him comes from this, his sole work, where we gain our views of his personality and his thoughts on the leaders of Athens.

Thucydides was an Athenian aristocrat who it is believed was in his late twenties or early thirties when the war first broke out in 431 B.C. Thucydides famously describes to us the plague of Athens in 430 B.C, which killed nearly a third of the Athenian population and also Athens leader Pericles. Thucydides gives us a detailed account of the plague and the hardship it caused the Athenians

".Externally the body was not very hot to the touch, nor pale in its appearance, but reddish, livid, and breaking out into small pustules and ulcers. But internally it burned so that the patient could not bear to have on him clothing or linen even of the very lightest description; or indeed to be otherwise than stark naked. What they would have liked best would have been to throw themselves into cold water; as indeed was done by some of the neglected sick, who plunged into the rain tanks in their agonies of unquenchable thirst; though it made no difference whether they drank little or much.
Though many lay unburied, birds and beasts would not touch them, or died after tasting them1".

It is also known that he was an Athenian general (Strategos) in 424 B.C and was in command of 7 ships which were stationed at Thasos and was subsequently to blame for the capture of Amphipolis.

"It was also my fate to be an exile from my country for twenty years after my command at Amphipolis; and being present with both parties, and more especially with the Peloponnesians by reason of my exile, I had leisure to observe affairs somewhat particularly2".

This led to him being condemned to death and fleeing to his Thracian estate. Thucydides did not return to Athens for another 20 years. It was because of this that he decided to write The History of the Peloponnesian Wars. Having been exiled from Athens Thucydides was able to travel among Peloponnesian allies, giving detailed accounts from both sides. Using interviews, researching records, providing giving eye witness accounts and his own take on events provides an insightful look at the war from both sides.

The date of his death is also the subject of much debate as some argue that because of the abrupt ending of his narrative in the middle of 411 B.C., he may have died around that time. However, it is also stated by Pausanias that a law was passed which allowed Thucydides to return to Athens in 404 B.C. but he was murdered on the way home. Therefore as is evident there is room for much debate on when he actually died but it would be fair to assume that he died between 411-404 B.C.

The sweetest of all sounds is praise.

Xenophon was born an Athenian, the son of Gryllus. Although his birth is not recorded it is agreed by many scholars that he was born in 431 B.C1. Xenophon came from the deme of Erchia of Athens. In his early years he was a pupil of Socrates.

As a young man he participated in the military expedition by Cyrus against Artaxerxes in 401 B.C. Xenophon recorded the details of the expedition in a book called the Anabasis which means "The Expedition" or "The march up country". In the book, Xenophon recounts how Cyrus recruited ten thousand Greek mercenaries to help his campaign. Although they won against Artaxerxes in the battle of Cunaxa, Cyrus was killed, which meant that they were leaderless. Anabasis records how they appointed new leaders, one of whom was Xenophon. It also tells of the hardships they faced trying to return home confronted by enemy armies, dealing with adverse weather and a lack of food and supplies. The Anabasis was also the first insight for the Athenians of Persian rituals, customs and culture.

Xenophon returned to Athens, although some years later he was exiled from the city. Although there is no certainty as to the cause of this exile, contributing factors would include his participation in battle against Athens at Coronea, fighting for the Spartan King Agesilaus II. The date of his death is not known.

One of the greatest military geniuses in history, Alexander the Great was born in 356 B.C. in Pella, Macedonia. The son of Philip of Macedon, who was an excellent Army General and organizer. His mother was Olympias, princess of Epirus.

At the age of 20, Alexander assembled forces in Greek Cities in Corinth that recognised him as their Leader. His Army mainly consisted of Macedonian soldiers and also some Greeks. He then invaded the Persian Empire, but whilst he was at war in Thrace, some Greek cities rebelled, which brought him back South. Whereupon he captured the city of Thebes and demolished it as a warning to other Greek cities of what would become of them if they tried to resist his rule.

In 333 BC Alexander advanced south from Cilicia into Syria, after defeating the Persians at the River Granicus, he defeated Darius III at Issus. He then proceeded through Phoenicia to Egypt, where they accepted him as their liberator from Persian Rule.

Determined to rule the World, Alexander pursued conquering north, through Syria and Mesopotamia and defeated Darius at Gaugamela in 331 BC. After Darius fled he was then killed by his own men. Now occupying Susa and Persepolis, Alexander was the master of the Persian Empire. Still determined to conquer the World he continued through what is now Afghanistan to the Indus River Valley and reach Punjab in 326BC. Averse to his will, but convinced by his men that they had reached the end of the world, Alexander turned back.

After his death his Empire soon dissolved, he conquered much of what was then the civilized world. Alexander was governed by divine ambition to conquer the world and create a universal world monarchy. He was the first great conqueror who reached Greece, Egypt, Asia Minor, and Asia. He is famous for having created ethnic fusion between the Macedonians and the Persians. Forming many Greek cities in Syria, Iran, Bactria and in Egypt, the city called Alexandria. From many victorious battles, Alexander created empire which had marked history as the beginning of the Hellenistic Age and brought him eternal glory.

What you leave behind is not what is engraved in stone monuments, but what is woven into the lives of others.

Pericles was born in 495 B.C. into the wealthy family of the Alcmaeonids. His father Xanthippus had himself been a military commander for Athens at the battle of Mycale in 479 B.C. Pericles name in Greek means 'Surrounded by Glory' and as is evident that was certainly to come true for Pericles was he became an influential statesman for Athens during The Peloponnesian War until his death in 429B.C.

Pericles started his political career in the law courts and was one of the leading prosecutors in getting Cimon ostracised from Athens in 461B.C. Having got rid of his political opponent and the murder of his other political rival Ephialtes in 461B.C. Pericles was able to consolidate his position as leading statesmen for Athens.

As well was being in charge of the military during the Peloponnesian Wars, Pericles also did a lot to improve Athens and the people that resided there. Admittedly some of his acts would have been to gain support from the masses. Some of his laws which he passed allowed the poor to attend theatrical performances for free. He also passed a law which stated that jury service should be paid for. He also used the money that the allies had saved for The Peloponnesian War to fund for the rebuilding of Athens in 448 B.C, which saw the rebuilding of the Acropolis and the Parthenon. This not only showed to Athens allies what a beautiful and powerful city Athens was but also gave work to Athenians.

Pericles remained in charge of Athens until his death in 429 B.C. from the plague that swept Athens. It is noticeable from his career that he was one of the leading figures in securing Athens as a force in the Aegean and was influential in turning the Delian League of allies into an Empire with each state paying tribune to Athens. Due to his character of not over reaching he was able to maintain that Empire something later leaders did not follow as they tried to increase their domain rather than stay with what they had.

A testimony to Pericles comes from Thucydides who described him "As the first citizen of Athens".

When we think of the great scientists and mathematicians of the ancient world, who have contributed greatly to today's inventions and researches, who could forget Archimedes.
In the hearts and minds of scientists Archimedes occupies the same respectable position as Newton and Gauss. In his ancient Greek days he was known as the "the wise one," "the master" and "the great geometer". His works such as the "Death Ray" gained him popularity and fame that lasts till this day. He was one of the last great Greek mathematicians.

Biography

Archimedes was born in 287 B.C. in the port of Syracuse, Sicily in the colony of Magna Graecia. His father was Phidias, who was an astronomer about whom nothing is known. We derive this information about Archimedes from his work "The Sand Reckoner".
In those times, in the absence of paper or blackboards, Archimedes used dust, ashes or any other available surface to draw his geometric figures. He used to get so engrossed in his work that sometimes he forgot to eat. It is alleged that he drew figures on his body after bathing and applying olive oil. According to the Greek historian John Tzetzes, who was famous for his research on Byzantinne Greek era, Archimedes lived for 75 years.
Except for the period of his life where he attended school in Alexandria at Euclid's, Archimedes spent all his life at Syracuse. Ancient Greek biographer Plutarch, relates Archimedes to King Hiero II of Syracuse. He says Archimedes achieved so much fame because of his relation to King Hiero II and Gelon (son of King Hiero II). He was a close friend of Gelon and helped Hiero solve complex problem with extreme ease, utterly amazing his friend.
Archimedes died in 212 B.C. during the Second Punic war, when Syracuse was captured by the Roman forces after a two year siege.
According to Plutarch, Archimedes was researching a mathematical diagram, when a Roman soldier ordered him to meet General Marcus (who was engaged in the siege of Syracuse). But Archimedes declined saying that he had to finish his diagram. Furious, the Roman soldier killed Archimedes. General Marcus was angered by the death of Archimedes, because he didn't wish him any harm. Another popular theory regarding Archimedes' death is that he was killed while actually surrendering to the Romans.

Tomb of Archimedes

The tomb of Archimedes is famous for it depicts his famous diagram, a sphere in a cylinder of the exact height and diameter. Archimedes had earlier proved that the volume and surface area of the sphere would be two thirds that of the cylinder. In 75 B.C., 137 years after the death of Archimedes, it was Cicero who was responsible for giving respect and attention to Archimedes' tomb, which had been long neglected. Cicero had heard about the tomb of Archimedes, but it took him a long time to find it, as the local populace were unable to help. Ultimately he found it at the Agrigentine gate in Syracuse, covered in bushes. He cleaned up the tomb and gave it its due respect.

Aristotle

Aristotle was born in 384 BC in Stagirus, in Northern Greece on the Chalcidic peninsula. His father, Nicomachus was doctor by profession and his mother name was Phaestis. Phaestis hometown was Chalcis in Euboea. There is no reference whether the medical skills of his father were passed on to Aristotle. But it is likely that Nicomachus would have wanted Aristotle to become a doctor like him. Unhappy with the living conditions in his area, Nicomachus traveled to Macedonia and became a court physician to King Amyntas of Macedonia.

It is not known whether Aristotle lived with his father Nicomachus while he served King Amyntas, in Pella, capital of Macedonia. But it a true fact, that he was sociable, with the Kings' son Philip, who was about his same age.
Nicomachus died when Aristotle was about the age of 10. So it virtually impossible to think that Aristotle could have become a medical practitioner as his mother had also died young. After his parents died, Proxenus (said to be his uncle) became his guardian. As his guardian Proxenus also became his teacher and educated him on Greek, rhetoric, and poetry.

In his teenage years, Proxenus admitted Aristotle in Plato's academy. Here Aristotle and Plato's long association as a student and teacher set off. When Aristotle first joined the academy Plato was not present there. His students, Eudoxus of Cnidos, ran it. Speusippus, Plato's nephew, and Xenocrates of Chalcedon also taught there.
Aristotle was a very extraordinary student. As soon as he finished his education, he became a part of the faculty there. He taught there for about 20 years educating about rhetoric and dialogue.

Why he didn't become Plato's successor after his death, the question remains a little uncertain. Some say that Speusippus took over the academy as Plato's nephew after his death in 347 BC. Other version is that Speusippus and Plato's views clashed on most of the topics and he couldn't work alongside Speusippus. While another reason is, his childhood friend King Philip of Macedonia request to come and teach his son Alexander (who later became Alexander the Great).
When Aristotle left Athens he traveled to Assos along with Xenocrates of Chalcedon. King Hermias of Assos welcomed Aristotle to his land. Here he married Pythias who was the adopted daughter of Hermias. Pythias gave birth to a daughter who was also named Pythias. About after 10 years of marriage Pythias died. Pythias is known to be much younger to Aristotle, about the age of 18 when the married.

Aristotle became a chief to a group of philosophers when he was in Assos. Along with them, he collected observations on zoology and biology, a skill, which was passed down by his father. When the Persians attacked Assos, King Hermias was caught and put to death. Aristotle fled to Macedonia, which was ruled by his friend King Philip.

King Philip succeeded his older brother Perdiccas, when he was killed in a war. He was an able king and skillful ruler. Philip's enmity with Athens's may have leaded to Aristotle removal from Athens. He stayed in Macedonia for about 7 years where he taught Philip's son, Alexander (who later became 'Alexander the Great'). Macedonia and Athens had a peace treaty signed between them in 346 BC. But the treaty started to fall apart in 340 BC. In Plato's academy, when elections were held due to Speusippus's death, Xenocrates won instead of Aristotle. Due to this Philip lost his interest in Aristotle. Aristotle returned to his hometown of Stagirus, where he remarried Herpyllis. Herpyllis bore him a son, which was named Mytilene.

After King Philip died Alexander succeeded him. He followed the same strategy regarding Athens as his father. While he did support Plato's academy he also encouraged Aristotle to set up his own institution. Aristotle then founded a school called Lyceum in Athens where he taught for the next 12 years. Most of his works were created in this period in Athens of which today only fragments survive. He is said to have given two types of lectures: detailed discussions in morning to advanced students and in the evening, short discourses for general people.
He studied and educated his students on a variety of topics, which included logic, physics, astronomy, meteorology, zoology, metaphysics, theology, psychology, politics, economics, ethics, rhetoric, and poetics. There is some argument whether all Aristotle's works were really written by him. But the counter argument is that the style of writing does change as the person matures and his beliefs change.

After the death of Alexander in 232 BC, anti- Macedonian sentiments flared up in Athens and Aristotle was held for impiety. But he managed to escape to Chalcis in Euboea, his mother's city. He died there within a year because of stomach troubles; in 323 B.C. at that time he was 62 years of age. At the time of his death, he left a will wherein he wished to be buried next to his wife.

Along with Socrates and Plato he was the most influential Greek philosopher's who laid the foundations of Western philosophy with the help of Presocratic Greek philosophy. While some scholars credit Plato and Aristotle with the base of two most important schools of ancient philosophy, Aristotelianism is also considered to be Aristotle's viewpoint of Plato's ideas and works.

Epicurus was an Ancient Greek Philosopher who lived from 341 BC to 270 BC.

Born on the seventh day of the month of Gamelian in 341 BC, according to Apollodorus. His parents were Athenians that emigrated to the Aegean island of Samos.

As a youth he was taught philosophy for four years by Pamphilus, a Platonist teacher. When he reached 18 he went to Athens to complete his military two year term.

When Alexander the Great was killed in 323 BC, Athenian settlers on Samos were then expelled by Perdiccas, to Colophon, where he was reunited with his family.

Epicurus, was forced to leave Mytilene in c. 311 BC, after his teaching believed to have caused strife. This led him to return to Athens in 306 BC, where he founded the school 'The Garden', named after a garden he had between Stoa and the Academy, which was used as for meeting place for his students. As far as we know Epicurus was not married and died in 270 BC in the archonship of Pytharatus , at the age of 72. Reportedly prolonged suffering from kidney stones at the time, he composed Idomeneus.

'For I have been attacked by a painful inability to urinate, and also dysentery, so violent that nothing can be added to the violence of my sufferings. But the cheerfulness of my mind, which comes from the recollection of all my philosophical contemplation, counterbalances all these afflictions.'

He is known to have written over 300 pieces of work, but only little fragments of this remains. The majority of what we know of him comes from people that commentated on him. Epicurus was mostly known as being the creator of 'Epicureanism' which was a popular belief in Hellenistic Philosophy over 600 years.

Epicurus believed we could all find a way to be happy. His philosophy was to accomplish a happy and satisfied life, with without feeling pain and fear. It was by living in 'seclusion', not being involved in politics, a self sufficient life without pursuing wealth or glory. It was also emphasized the importance of a close circle of friends, that you could trust and participate in enjoying the lesser glorified objects in life, such as food and science. Believing pleasure and pain to be measures of what is good and bad. Epicurus (as opposed to Aristotle) believed death is the end of the body and the soul, so it should not be feared.
Epicurus is quoted as believing to have said 'Death is nothing to us'.Meaning when we exist death is not, and when death exists we are not. All sensations and consciousness ends with death and therefore in death there is neither pleasure nor pain. The fear of death arises from the false belief that in death there is awareness.

It is clear that in his teachings he believed gods were not concerned with humans as most commonly thought at the time, that they do not reward or punish humans. When we are not suffering from pain, we are no longer in need of pleasure, and therefore enter a state of 'perfect mental peace'.

Biography:

Plato was a classical Greek philosopher born 428-7 B.C.E and died in 348-7 B.C.E at the age of 80-81. The trio of Plato, Socrates (his teacher) and Aristotle (his student) they laid the fundamentals of Western philosophy. Along with being a mathematician he was a also a philosopher and a founder of an Academy in Athens, which was first institute which imparted higher end education to students. Socrates has a large influence of his thinking and teachings.

Plato was born in a wealthy family to Ariston and Perictione. According to Diogenes' Plato's birth was a result of Ariston's rape of Perictione. He had two older brothers Glaucon and Adeimantus, and a sister, Potone. Plato also had a half brother, Antiphon when his mother remarried after his father died.

Even though Plato's family did have political connections they were not commendable. His uncle (Charmides) was a member of "Thirty Tyrants" who destroyed the Athenian democracy in 404 B.C.E.

Though people know him by the name of Plato, his given name was Aristocles while Plato was his nickname given to him because of his broad forehead.
Plato began his philosophical career under the guidance of Socrates. When Socrates died he traveled to Egypt and Italy studied in Pythagoras and then remained as an advisor for the rulers of Syracuse. When he returned to Athens around the age of forty he started his own academy, where he tried to impart the Socratic style of teaching to his students. The Academy operated till 529 A.D. after which it was closed, thinking it was a threat to Christianity.

Plato and Socrates:

Though Plato was a part of Socratic followers, he didn't make it open. During the last days of Socrates, during the trial any followers including Adeimantus (Plato's brother), came to meet him, but Plato citied the reason that he was ill. He distanced himself from the inner circle of followers of Socrates, which he mentions in his work 'Apology'.

Description:

Socrates (469-399 B.C.) was a classical Greek philosopher who is credited with laying the fundamentals of modern Western philosophy. He is known for creating Socratic irony and the Socratic method (elenchus). He is best recognized for inventing the teaching practice of pedagogy, wherein a teacher questions a student in a manner that draws out the correct response. He has had a profound influence on Western philosophy, along with his students Plato and Aristole. Though much of Socrates' contribution is to the field of ethics, his input to the field of epistemology and logic is also noteworthy.

Life

Details of the life of Socrates can be obtained from writing of his associates and students, Plato, Aristophanes and Xenophon. There is no proof that Socrates himself wrote anything. Most of whatever we know of him is through Plato's works like 'The Apology'. Socrates was primarily know for h
is ideas, communication skills and public teachings. His views and ideas are reflected through his associates' works. In Plato's work, Socrates' father was Sophroniscus and his mother Phaenarete, a midwife. Socrates married Xanthippe, who was much younger than him and he had three sons, Lamprocles, Sophroniscus and Menexenus.
Very little is known on what Socrates did for a living. According to Timon, he took over the stonemasonry trade, which was a family business, although Xenophon's version suggests that he dedicated his life to philosophical discussion. Aristophanes' writings describe Socrates running a sophist school and getting paid for it. Xenophon and Plato disagree with this saying that Socrates did not accept any payment for his teaching, with his poverty acting as proof of this fact. In Plato's dialogues he portrays Socrates as a soldier who served in the Athenian army and fought in the battles of Potidaea, Amphipolis, and Delium.

Death

The death of Socrates is the climax point in his career and is well depicted in Plato's works. His death could have been avoided if he had deserted his philosophy and gone back to minding his own business. Even after he was convicted he could have escaped with the help of his friend Crito, who argued that by not escaping, Socrates was letting down his students and family. His non-cooperation seems to be, in part, an expression of political infighting. Athens, at the time, was in political turmoil, undergoing a change from authoritarian rule to democracy and Socrates was against democracy. Despite his loyalty to Athens, his attitude of defending his truth clashed with current Athenian politics and society. Even the Oracle had agreed that there was no one wiser than Socrates, but Socrates refused to believe this. Eventually Socrates was sentenced to death by poison (hemlock). His death narrative is found in Plato's 'Phaedo'. After drinking the poison Socrates was made to walk till his legs felt heavy. The man who gave him the hemlock pinched his foot but Socrates only felt numbness. This numb feeling eventually travelled to his heart and he died. Shortly before dying, Socrates spoke his last words to Crito saying, "Crito, we owe a cock to Asclepius. Please, don't forget to pay the debt."

Homer's ancestry can be traced from Odyssey. He was the son of Epikaste and Telemachus. Born around 8th - 9th century B.C. he was said to be a court singer and a story teller. Even if these details about Homer are available, not much is know about him. In fact his existence is somewhat doubted. Some say he was born on the island of Chios while argue that he existed in Ionia. But the dialect and the description in the poems pointed that Homer lived in Ionia.

When we think of the blind poet Homer with relation to Ancient Greece, the first thing that comes to our mind is his beautiful epic poems Iliad and Odyssey. While there is disagreement, whether Homer alone wrote these poems or many other people, the 'analysts' and the ancient Greek people and the 'unitarians' are on Homer's side. These poems were an important part of the Greek culture as they were written during the famous Trojan war era.

The argument whether Odyssey was written by Homer or not has been going on for a long time. Even if the epics are controversial, there is enough evidence that the Odyssey is written in a consistent style, and this fact is doubtful if they had been written by different authors. Another argument is that whether Homer wrote both Iliad and Odyssey. The difference in style and languages of the epics leads to debate. One ancient Greek literary critic, namely Longinus argued that the styles differed because Homer wrote both these poems in different stages of his life period. While Iliad was created during his youth, Odyssey was written as Homer aged.

There is also much debate about how Homer composed such long poems, because for people now to memorize such long stanzas, seems impossible. It's said some editor merged all his works as one whole epic. The fact that uncomfortable transitions from topic to topic in his poems supports the argument.
An argument that has tried to subsidized with the reasoning that lengthy works can be composed orally by poets whose recitations belong to a long tradition of storytelling. The oral poet constructs his poem from verbal formulas, groups of two or more words that have already been composed in order to serve recurring needs in the narrative. These may be used, for example, when the poet wishes to reintroduce a character that he has already described.
Many scholars agree that Iliad and Odyssey underwent change and were improved during the 8the century from the original material. Athenian tyrant Hipparchus played an important role in this improvement. The refinement of the Homeric text must have involved the production of canonical written text.
While Iliad and Odyssey have become famous, his Homeric Hymns have not remained far behind. The Homeric Hymns are short poems celebrating the various Gods. The styles if the Homeric Hymns are same as the Iliad and Odyssey, the reason for which they are attributed to Homer.
As Homer was non-literate how these poems were written are arguable. Perhaps, he dictated his poems to a scribe who wrote them. The Greek alphabet was also introduced around the 8th century so Homer must have been among the first rhapsodes who were literate.
Iliad by Ancient Greek Poet Homer

The poems of Illiad depict the seige of the city of Ilion or Troy during the Trojan War. The word Illiad itself means "something concerned with Ilion". Illion was the city based in the state of Troy. When Illiad was created, is arguable. Some scholars are adamant that it was written around the 8th - 9th century, while some debate it must have been written during the 6th - 7th century.

The whole Illiad is devoted to war of Troy, giving a detailed poetic description of the war. The characters of the fighters, their battle cries and all the intricate details of the war are mentioned. The epic has strong religious and supernatural influence. Both warring parties are extremely religious and the Greek and Trojan heroes draw strength from favored gods, giving them divine power. Regularly making sacrifices to Gods, while the Gods constantly intervene in the war on behalf of their believers, almost treating the humans as puppets for their own causes.
The Illiad covers only the final and tenth year of the Trojan war. The intial war years, the background of the war and the end of the war are given a miss.
Odyssey by Ancient Greek Poet Homer

The epic poem Odyssey focuses on the Greek character Odysseus and his ten year journey from Troy to Ithaca after the fall of Troy (Trojan war). The poem covers both the circumstances that befell his family in Ithaca and his own perilous adventures back from Troy. Whilst in Odysseus absence at home, his son Telemachus and wife Penelope have to deal with suitors who move into their home, in an attempt to take Odysseus place and ask Penelope's hand in marriage.

The poem is fundamental to the modern Western canon and continues to be read in Homeric Greek and translated into modern languages around the world.
The original poem was composed by a rhapsode, and its conversion into written work is a debatable issue. The Odyssey was composed in 12,110 lines of dactylic hexameter. The most extraordinary part of the poem is the modern plot and that the events construction depended as much upon the women as the warriors. Today Odyssey occupies and important part of classical literature.
Homer was a celestial personality for the ancient Greeks. Along with his work he was a source of model for his heroic conduct. His epics, poems have inspired many poets, storytellers, and dramatists such as William Shakespeare. His works have been translated into English by George Chapman (1616) and Alexander Pope and they occupy a permanent place in classical literature.

Aeschylus was born in the city of Eleusis, near Athens, in 525 BC and died in 456 BC. He was a Greek dramatist, the earliest of the city's great tragic poets. As the predecessor of Sophocles and Euripides, he is the founder of Greek tragedy.

He fought successfully against the Persians at Marathon in 490 BC, at Salamis in 480 BC, and possibly at Plataea in the following year. He made at least two trips, perhaps three, to Sicily, where on his final visit he died at Gela. A monument was later erected there in his memory.

It was a major step for drama when Aeschylus introduced the second actor. He also attempted to involve the chorus directly in the action of the play. Aeschylus is said to have written about 90 plays. His tragedies, first performed about 500 BC, were presented as trilogies, or groups of three, usually bound together by a common theme, and each trilogy was followed by a satyr drama (low comedy involving a mythological hero, with a chorus of satyrs). The titles of 79 of his plays are known, but only 7 have survived.

Let each man exercise the art he knows1.

Aristophanes was a Greek comic writer, who was the son of Philippus. It is not known where he was born or in what year. However we do know that he lived in the deme of Kudathenaion which would suggest that he came from a wealthy family1. Most of his plays were political satires highlighting the troubles in Athens during that period. Many of them were performed at festivals, watched and voted for by the people, unfortunately out of the 40 plays that he wrote only 11 survive today.

His first surviving work is The Acharnians (425 BC). Athens at this time was very demoralized because of the Peloponnesian War and the death of Pericles six years earlier. The play highlights the problems the people of Attica were having with constant raids on their land and continual enemy invasions.

His second surviving play is The Knights (424 BC). In the play, Aristophanes pokes fun at the Athenian leader of the time Cleon, for his tyrannical leadership and also for his alcoholic tendencies. Because of the sharp attack on Cleon, Aristophanes had to play the part of Cleon himself. The play gained Aristophanes first place at the festival.

Aristophanes in The Clouds (423 BC) turns his attention away from political satire and instead covers the cultural figure of Socrates. The Wasps (422 BC) ridiculed the courts of justice. The Peace (421 BC) focuses on the Peace of Nicias which saw the end of hostilities in the Peloponnesian War and discusses the peace between Athens and Sparta.

Aristophanes next play was not for another seven years and in that time a law had been passed attempting to keep in check political satire. Aristophanes next surviving play was The Birds (414 BC) and poked fun at Athens for its fondness of litigation. In 411 BC Aristophanes wrote Lysistrata which is another anti-war play and shows the plight of women trying to bring about peace in an attempt to stop losing their sons to the war.

Aristophanes did not write another play for 19 years and his later work was far less critical of the political issues of the time. Presumably this was because of the laws that had been put in place to stop writers criticizing the regimes that ruled Athens. Aristophanes final play was Plutus (388 BC), which he wrote some three years before his death.

Euripides

Euripides was born in 480 BC and died in 406 BC. Euripides was the youngest of the three principal fifth-century tragic poets. His work, which was quite popular in his own time, exerted great influence on Roman drama. In more recent times he has influenced English and German drama, and most conspicuously such French dramatists as Pierre Corneille and Jean-Baptiste Racine.

His plays began to be performed in the Attic drama festivals in 454 BC, but it was not until 442 BC that he won first prize. This distinction, despite his prolific talent, fell to him again only four times. Aside from his writings, his chief interests were philosophy and science.

Euripides represented the new moral, social, and political movements that were taking place in Athens towards the end of the 5th century BC. It was a period of enormous intellectual discovery, in which "wisdom" ranked as the highest earthly accomplishment. Anaxagoras had just proven that air was an element, and that the sun was not a divinity but matter. New truths were being established in all departments of knowledge, and Euripides, reacting to them, brought a new kind of consciousness to the writing of tragedy. His interest lay in the thought and experience of the ordinary individual rather than in the experiences of legendary figures of the heroic past.

Euripides, Vatican Museum.

Sophocles

Sophocles was born about 496 BC in Colonus Hippius (now part of Athens), he was to become one of the great playwrights of the golden age. The son of a wealthy merchant, he would enjoy all the comforts of a thriving Greek empire.
Sophocles was provided with the best traditional aristocratic education. He studied all of the arts. By the age of sixteen, he was already known for his beauty and grace and was chosen to lead a choir of boys at a celebration of the victory of Salamis in 480 BC. In 468 BC, at the age of 28, he defeated Aeschylus, whose pre-eminence as a tragic poet had long been undisputed, in a dramatic competition.

In 441 BC he was in turn defeated in one of the annual Athenian dramatic competitions by Euripides. From 468 BC, however, Sophocles won first prize about 20 times and many second prizes. His life, which ended in 406 BC at about the age of 90, coincided with the period of Athenian greatness. He was not politically active or militarily inclined, but the Athenians twice elected him to high military office.

Sophocles wrote more than 100 plays of which seven complete tragedies and fragments of 80 or 90 others are preserved. He was the first to add a third actor. He also abolished the trilogic form. Sophocles chose to make each tragedy a complete entity in itself--as a result, he had to pack all of his action into the shorter form, and this clearly offered greater dramatic possibilities.
Sophocles also effected a transformation in the spirit and significance of a tragedy; thereafter, although religion and morality were still major dramatic themes, the plights, decisions and fates of individuals became the chief interest of Greek tragedy.

A marble relief of a poet, perhaps Sophocles.

Sculptors

Phidias

Phidias was an Athenian sculptor, the son of Charmides, and is generally acknowledged as the greatest ancient Greek sculptor and instigator of the classical style of the 5th and 4th centuries BC. Although few facts are known about his life, it is believed he lived from around 490 until 430 BC. No originals of his work exist, but his recognition as a renowned sculptor has been guaranteed due to the praise of ancient writers, as well as the influence his sculptures had on the development of the art. He gained most of his fame for his two enormous chryselephantine (gold and ivory) sculptures: One of Athena in the Parthenon, and the other of Zeus at Olympia. These statues had such a profound impact that they determined all subsequent conceptions of Athena and Zeus.

Various people have been rumoured to be responsible for his training: Hegias of Athens, Agelades of Argos and the painter Polygnotus of Thasos. We know of two of Phidias' own pupils, noted by Pausanias, who were also his 'eromenoi' (younger boys taken as lovers by older men). The first, Agoracritus, went on to produce the sculpture of Nemesis at Rhamnus. The second, Pantarkes of Elis, won the boy's wrestling at Olympia in 436 B.C and seems to have been greatly admired by Phidias. This is confirmed by Pausanias' report that the boy was used by Phidias as a model for one of the figures that decorated his great statue of Zeus at Olympia. The piece was in the form of a triumphant athlete that stood at the base of the statue. Clement of Alexandria also writes that Phidias carved the words 'Kalos Pantarkes'('Pantarkes is beautiful') onto Zeus' little finger.

Phidias is known to have been closely connected with Pericles, as his friend and also as his adviser. When Pericles rose to power in 449 B.C. he set out to beautify Athens once more after the victory over Persia. Phidias was placed in charge of artistic activities as the superintendent of public works. He was commissioned to build the major statues for the city, and was paid by Pericles with money from the Delian League. It is generally believed that Phidias directed and supervised the construction of the Parthenon, as well as designing the sculptural decoration, of which the surviving pieces can be found in the British museum (the Elgin Marbles). The marble blocks that were to be used for the pediment statues of the building date from 434 BC, which is probably after Phidias' death. Therefore it is a possibility that much of the work was carried out by assistants or pupils, such as Agoracritus. Interestingly though, the mathematical golden ratio is represented by the Greek letter 'phi', taken from Phidias' name. This is because Phidias employed the ratio in making the Parthenon sculptures, which perfectly exhibit the proportions of the golden ratio.

There are varying accounts of Phidias' death, but it is generally acknowledged that he became the target of Pericles' political enemies, due to his close connection with him. Targetting Phidias was an attempt to harm Pericles' status. They first accused him of stealing gold from the Athena Parthenos in 432 BC, however Phidias was able to prove his innocence. They then charged him with impiety, based on the fact that he had included portraits of Pericles and himself in the decorations of Athena's shield. It was formerly believed that Phidias died in prison shortly after this, however it is now more likely that he was exiled to Elis were he lived out the rest of his days.

Phidias' colossal statue of Athena was housed in the Parthenon, known as the Athena Parthenos and recognised as the symbol of Athens, dating from 447 - 439 BC. As the original is lost, we form a general idea of the statue from Roman copies, as well as its representation on coins and gems. The chryselephantine statue stood 38 feet high, depicting the goddess standing upright with a spear in her left hand and a winged Nike (goddess of victory) in her right hand. She wore a helmet and a tunic covered by her characteristic snaked aegis, with an ornate shield and a serpent (representing Erichthonius) by her side. Her chiton (tunic) is fixed at the waist by two entwined serpents. In the middle of her helmet a sphinx is depicted, with a griffin shown in relief on either side. Her hair falls down in front of her breastplate, which bears a picture of Medusa's head in ivory. The flesh of her arms and face were also carved of ivory; the drapery made of beaten sheets of gold. This meant that the statue actually made up a great deal of the Athenian treasury, and in 296 BC Lachares replaced the gold with bronze in order to pay his army. Several ancient copies survive, the most notable being the Varvakeion Athena from 130 AD and the uncompleted Lenormant Athena; both are now in the National Archaeological Museum in Athens.

Phidias' second work on the same scale as the Athena Parthenos, was his gigantic statue of Zeus for the temple in Olympia. Dating from around 435 BC, the statue was counted as one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. It depicted Zeus seated on an huge throne, the back of which rose above his head, making the statue 42 feet high, occupying the full height of the temple. All that survives to give us an idea of what the sculpture looked like, are some small engraved coins from Elis, which show the composition of the figure and the rendering of the head. Zeus was bearded and wearing a cloak that was covered in sculpted decorations. In his right hand he held a Nike, and in his left was a sceptre with an eagle on top. Like the Athena Parthenos, the piece was chryselephantine, with ivory flesh and gold drapery. In 1958 a workshop was excavated at Olympia that is believed to have been where Phidias made his Zeus, on account of a drinking cup found there inscribed with the words 'I belong to Phidias'. Some tools and terracotta moulds were discovered which establish that gold was hammered into the moulds and then further decorated with glass and gems.

Other works that we know of by Phidias include two other statues of Athena for the Acropolis. The first, the Athena Promachos, was 30 feet high and therefore the tallest Athenian sculpture before Phidias went on to build the Athena Parthenos. The second was the Lemnian Athena, dedicated by colonists who were sent from Athens to Lemnos. There were also two further chryselephantine sculptures: an Athena for Pellene and an Aphrodite for Elis.

Phidias Showing the Frieze of the Parthenon to his Friends (1868)

Praxiteles

Praxiteles is one of the most celebrated of the Attic sculptors, and although very few facts about his life are certain, it is known that he was from Athens and his father, Kephisodotus, was believed to be another renowned Attic sculptor. All of his work is estimated to date from the second half of the 4th century B.C.

Only one of Praxiteles' sculptures still survives, although the authenticity of this piece is doubted by some. However, as a result of his fame and popularity, a great deal of Roman copies of his works were made, many of which have been recovered. His recognition as a great sculptor is clear from the pictures of his sculptures which were engraved on Roman coins, as well as the descriptions given to us by writers such as Pliny the Elder and Pausanias. Praxiteles' school of art was mostly concerned with marble, due to the fine quality of marble from the quarries in Paros at the time. Some of his sculptures were also known to be painted by Nicias, who Praxiteles greatly respected, proclaiming that the best statues were those painted by Nicias.

Praxiteles was highly influential in the development of Greek sculpture, bringing an elegant and sensuous grace to his work. His innovative style was a transformation from the tone set by his predecessors of impressive yet somehow detached sculpture, especially in representations of the gods. Praxiteles overcomes the problem of distancing the viewer by producing a much more humanising view of the gods. Many sculptors from Praxiteles' time chose to use bronze for their sculpture, as it allows greater flexibility in composition due to its tensile strength. However, Praxiteles, although he was skilled in both materials, favoured the use of marble. He points out its advantage over bronze as its ability to resemble the softness and radiance of the skin. The innovations of bronze had allowed sculptors to accurately depict the human anatomy, as well as the responsiveness of the body to various movements or positions. This meant that the sculptures being produced in Praxiteles' time were aiming to create a physically accurate figure. However, Praxiteles was interested in doing more than this; it was his beautiful rendering of surface and texture that made him such a highly praised sculptor.

Other Praxiteles' sculpture had a great impact on the conventions of ancient Greek sculpture, producing ideas so creative that they were imitated for centuries. A great deal of this influence can be seen in the renovation of Classical sculpture during the Renaissance.

So-called Venus Braschi, type of the Knidian Aphrodite, Munich Glyptothek